Penelitian kausal atau eksperimental adalah desain penelitian yang digunakan untuk menentukan hubungan sebab-akibat antara dua atau lebih variabel. Dalam penelitian kausal, peneliti mencoba mengidentifikasi bagaimana perubahan dalam satu variabel (variabel independen) mempengaruhi variabel lain (variabel dependen). Tujuan utama dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menemukan hubungan sebab-akibat yang kuat dan valid antara variabel yang diuji.
Desain penelitian kausal sering digunakan dalam bidang pendidikan, psikologi, ilmu sosial, serta ilmu alam untuk memastikan bahwa suatu intervensi atau perlakuan tertentu memberikan dampak langsung terhadap suatu hasil. Dalam artikel ini, kita akan membahas syarat-syarat yang harus dipenuhi dalam melaksanakan penelitian kausal, jenis data yang digunakan, instrumen penelitian, serta teknik validasi yang harus dilakukan. Sebagai tambahan, satu contoh kasus penelitian kausal akan diberikan.
Syarat-Syarat untuk Melakukan Penelitian Kausal
- Hubungan Sebab-Akibat Syarat utama dalam penelitian kausal adalah adanya hipotesis yang jelas mengenai hubungan sebab-akibat antara variabel independen dan variabel dependen. Peneliti harus yakin bahwa variabel independen yang diuji benar-benar dapat menyebabkan perubahan pada variabel dependen, bukan sekadar kebetulan atau korelasi semata.
Contoh: Dalam sebuah penelitian tentang efektivitas metode pembelajaran aktif terhadap peningkatan hasil belajar, variabel independennya adalah metode pembelajaran aktif, sedangkan variabel dependennya adalah hasil belajar siswa.
- Kontrol terhadap Variabel Pengganggu Untuk memastikan bahwa perubahan dalam variabel dependen disebabkan oleh variabel independen, peneliti harus mengontrol variabel-variabel lain yang bisa mengganggu atau memberikan pengaruh tambahan terhadap hasil. Variabel pengganggu, atau confounding variables, harus dikontrol agar tidak mempengaruhi hasil penelitian.
Contoh: Dalam penelitian pembelajaran aktif dan hasil belajar, peneliti harus mengontrol variabel seperti latar belakang pendidikan siswa, kemampuan awal, atau kondisi fisik dan mental siswa, yang bisa mempengaruhi hasil belajar selain metode pembelajaran.
- Randomisasi Randomisasi adalah salah satu syarat penting dalam penelitian kausal. Randomisasi bertujuan untuk memastikan bahwa subjek penelitian dibagi ke dalam kelompok secara acak, sehingga perbedaan antar kelompok dapat diminimalkan. Ini akan mengurangi kemungkinan bahwa variabel lain (selain variabel independen) yang mempengaruhi hasil.
Contoh: Jika peneliti membandingkan dua kelompok siswa yang menggunakan metode pembelajaran berbeda, maka kelompok-kelompok tersebut harus dipilih secara acak untuk memastikan kesetaraan antara kelompok kontrol dan eksperimen.
- Kelompok Kontrol dan Eksperimen Penelitian kausal umumnya melibatkan kelompok kontrol dan kelompok eksperimen. Kelompok kontrol tidak menerima perlakuan atau intervensi apa pun, sedangkan kelompok eksperimen menerima perlakuan yang diuji. Hal ini memungkinkan peneliti untuk membandingkan efek dari intervensi tersebut dengan kondisi tanpa intervensi.
Contoh: Dalam studi tentang metode pembelajaran aktif, kelompok eksperimen menggunakan metode pembelajaran aktif, sedangkan kelompok kontrol menggunakan metode pembelajaran tradisional.
- Perlakuan yang Terukur Intervensi atau perlakuan yang diberikan kepada kelompok eksperimen harus terukur dan konsisten. Hal ini diperlukan agar peneliti dapat mengidentifikasi secara jelas dampak dari perlakuan tersebut pada variabel dependen.
Contoh: Peneliti harus merancang instruksi yang jelas mengenai bagaimana metode pembelajaran aktif diterapkan, sehingga semua guru di kelompok eksperimen menerapkan metode yang sama dengan konsistensi tinggi.
Jenis Data dalam Penelitian Kausal
Data dalam penelitian kausal biasanya bersifat kuantitatif, karena peneliti berusaha untuk mengukur perubahan atau efek dari suatu perlakuan secara numerik. Berikut adalah jenis data yang digunakan dalam penelitian kausal:
- Data Kuantitatif Data kuantitatif dalam penelitian kausal biasanya dihasilkan dari pengukuran variabel dependen sebelum dan sesudah intervensi. Data kuantitatif memungkinkan peneliti untuk menghitung dampak perlakuan secara objektif dan analitis.
Contoh: Nilai hasil belajar siswa yang diukur sebelum dan sesudah penerapan metode pembelajaran aktif merupakan data kuantitatif yang menunjukkan perubahan yang terjadi akibat perlakuan.
- Data Longitudinal Dalam beberapa penelitian kausal, peneliti menggunakan data longitudinal, yaitu data yang dikumpulkan secara berulang dalam jangka waktu tertentu. Hal ini berguna untuk melihat bagaimana intervensi mempengaruhi hasil dalam jangka panjang.
Contoh: Peneliti dapat mengukur hasil belajar siswa setiap semester selama dua tahun untuk melihat dampak jangka panjang dari metode pembelajaran aktif.
- Data Pretest dan Posttest Peneliti kausal sering menggunakan desain pretest-posttest, di mana data dikumpulkan sebelum dan sesudah intervensi. Pretest berguna untuk menentukan kondisi awal variabel dependen, sedangkan posttest memberikan gambaran tentang efek dari perlakuan.
Contoh: Peneliti melakukan pretest untuk mengukur kemampuan awal siswa sebelum menggunakan metode pembelajaran aktif, dan melakukan posttest setelah perlakuan untuk membandingkan perubahan yang terjadi.
Instrumen Penelitian dalam Penelitian Kausal
Instrumen penelitian dalam desain kausal harus mampu mengukur variabel dependen dengan akurat dan reliabel. Beberapa instrumen yang umum digunakan meliputi:
- Tes Prestasi Tes prestasi sering digunakan sebagai instrumen untuk mengukur variabel dependen dalam penelitian kausal, terutama dalam bidang pendidikan. Tes ini dirancang untuk mengukur hasil belajar atau keterampilan siswa setelah menerima intervensi.
Contoh: Peneliti dapat menggunakan tes prestasi matematika yang dikembangkan untuk mengukur peningkatan hasil belajar siswa setelah mengikuti metode pembelajaran aktif.
- Kuesioner Kuesioner dapat digunakan untuk mengukur variabel dependen yang berkaitan dengan sikap, persepsi, atau emosi responden. Dalam konteks pendidikan, kuesioner bisa digunakan untuk mengetahui persepsi siswa terhadap metode pembelajaran yang digunakan.
Contoh: Peneliti bisa memberikan kuesioner kepada siswa untuk menilai tingkat kepuasan mereka terhadap metode pembelajaran aktif yang diterapkan di kelas.
- Observasi Observasi sering digunakan untuk mengukur perilaku atau proses yang terjadi selama perlakuan. Peneliti dapat menggunakan instrumen observasi untuk mencatat respons siswa selama proses pembelajaran.
Contoh: Guru yang bertindak sebagai peneliti dapat mengamati interaksi siswa selama penerapan metode pembelajaran aktif dan mencatat perubahan perilaku belajar siswa.
Teknik Validasi dalam Penelitian Kausal
Validasi dalam penelitian kausal sangat penting untuk memastikan bahwa hasil penelitian dapat dipercaya dan merepresentasikan hubungan sebab-akibat yang sebenarnya. Beberapa teknik validasi yang sering digunakan meliputi:
- Validitas Internal Validitas internal mengacu pada seberapa baik peneliti dapat memastikan bahwa hubungan sebab-akibat yang diidentifikasi adalah benar-benar hasil dari intervensi, bukan disebabkan oleh variabel lain. Kontrol yang ketat terhadap variabel pengganggu dan penggunaan kelompok kontrol adalah cara utama untuk memastikan validitas internal.
Contoh: Peneliti harus memastikan bahwa variabel seperti latar belakang ekonomi siswa tidak mempengaruhi hasil belajar, sehingga pengaruh dari metode pembelajaran aktif dapat diukur dengan jelas.
- Reliabilitas Instrumen Instrumen yang digunakan untuk mengukur variabel dependen harus reliabel, artinya dapat memberikan hasil yang konsisten ketika diulang. Pengujian reliabilitas dilakukan dengan cara menguji instrumen pada sampel kecil sebelum penelitian utama dilakukan.
Contoh: Peneliti bisa menguji reliabilitas tes prestasi matematika dengan menerapkannya pada sampel kecil siswa dan melihat apakah hasilnya konsisten.
- Uji Statistik Setelah data dikumpulkan, peneliti harus menggunakan uji statistik yang sesuai untuk menentukan apakah hasil yang diperoleh signifikan secara statistik. Teknik yang umum digunakan dalam penelitian kausal termasuk uji t, ANOVA, dan regresi.
Contoh: Peneliti bisa menggunakan uji t untuk membandingkan hasil belajar antara kelompok eksperimen dan kelompok kontrol, guna menentukan apakah perbedaan hasil yang diamati signifikan secara statistik.
Contoh Kasus Penelitian Kausal
Judul: Pengaruh Metode Pembelajaran Aktif terhadap Hasil Belajar Matematika Siswa SMP
Seorang peneliti ingin mengetahui apakah metode pembelajaran aktif lebih efektif dibandingkan dengan metode pembelajaran tradisional dalam meningkatkan hasil belajar siswa pada mata pelajaran matematika. Penelitian ini melibatkan dua kelompok siswa kelas 8 di sebuah SMP. Kelompok eksperimen menggunakan metode pembelajaran aktif, sedangkan kelompok kontrol menggunakan metode pembelajaran tradisional.
Langkah Penelitian:
- Variabel:
- Variabel independen: Metode pembelajaran (aktif vs tradisional)
- Variabel dependen: Hasil belajar matematika (diukur dengan tes prestasi)
- Sampel: 60 siswa kelas 8 dibagi secara acak menjadi dua kelompok, dengan 30 siswa di setiap kelompok.
- Instrumen: Tes prestasi matematika yang diujikan kepada siswa sebelum dan sesudah perlakuan (pretest-posttest).
- Teknik Validasi: Uji reliabilitas pada tes prestasi dilakukan sebelum penelitian utama. Selain itu, variabel pengganggu seperti latar belakang siswa dan kemampuan awal dikontrol melalui randomisasi.
- Analisis: Uji t digunakan untuk menganalisis apakah terdapat perbedaan yang signifikan antara kelompok eksperimen dan kelompok kontrol setelah perlakuan.
Hasil: Penelitian menunjukkan bahwa siswa yang belajar menggunakan metode pembelajaran aktif memiliki hasil belajar yang lebih tinggi secara signifikan dibandingkan dengan siswa yang belajar menggunakan metode tradisional.
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The highest bidder leads the first trick and chooses the trump go properly with.
In two-player pinochle, each participant is dealt 12 cards,
and the remaining 24 playing cards are placed in a kitty.
The sport consists of a quantity of rounds, with every round consisting
of a bidding part and a playing phase. The participant who wins
the bid becomes the declarer and chooses the trump swimsuit.
After each players have melded, the sport moves on to trick-taking.
The participant who won the last trick leads the next trick
by taking part in any card from their hand.
After all 15 tricks are played out, every player counts the variety of counters (aces, tens and kings) that they
have managed to accumulate in their trick pile. These counters are valued at 10 points every, and the winner of the last trick can rely a
further 10 points for that. If the three cards discarded
by the bidder before play embody any counters, the values of those are included within the bidder’s total.
Bidding – A crucial phase permitting every group the opportunity to wager on the Trump suit, gaining a significant advantage in getting
more factors in melds and trick play.
You’ll also need to maintain on to your trump Nines as these are value one point
each. In most trick taking games, subsequent players need to play the go
properly with of the lead card if they can. When enabled, gamers can change the
starting bid for a single deck from 250 to one hundred fifty and the beginning bid for a double deck from
500 to 300. The players take turns in naming their bid, beginning
with the vendor and going clockwise. A player can elevate the bid by 10, 20, 30, forty
or 50 points at a time. A player also can pass, in which case they do not place a bid and are out of the bidding for that spherical.
If they cross, the next participant to their left has the same possibility,
and so on. If a player decides to bid, they have to bid larger than the previous bidder.
The bidding continues clockwise until all players have passed.
Starting with the player from the left, deal 12 cards to each participant.
Once everybody has their playing cards, flip excessive card of the deck.
This is the “trump” go nicely with for the round, a.k.a essentially the most highly effective suit for that spherical.
Each card of that suit is now a trump card, with the remaining playing
cards throughout the deck forming the “stock” whereas being placed face down.
Nonetheless the profitable participant can give back the playing cards his companion passed to
him if he so chooses. The group that lost the auction cannot trade any cards that spherical.
After discarding, the bidder declares the trump go properly
with and claims his meld, laying out his meld combos on the table for all to see.
Upon completion of the hand, the non-dealer player becomes the following dealer.
The Shuffle and Reduce – The Gamers agree beforehand, who is to tabulate
the continuing scoring of the sport. From a shuffled pack unfold face down, each participant draws a card.
The person with the bottom card offers first and has his alternative
of seats. If each players draw playing cards of the identical rank, they minimize once
more. The Vendor shuffles, then the non-dealer cuts, leaving a minimum of 5 playing cards in every
portion of the pack (stock).
This technique takes longer to depend the score on the finish of each hand.
According to the pre-1945 rules, each participant must comply with the lead suit if potential.
The only exception is that if a player performed a trump card when trump was not the swimsuit led.
In that case, these following that participant may play any card of the lead swimsuit, since they must comply with the lead go
nicely with however are already losing to the
participant who played trump. Likewise, if a participant can’t
comply with swimsuit, however has trump, they must play
trump. If another trump has already been performed that a participant can’t beat, then they will play any trump
of their hand, however they nonetheless should play a trump
card if they will.
The final player to not pass wins the bid with the quantity he final bid.
If all players move with out bidding then the supplier makes the default bid of 250 factors, and automatically
wins the contract. Play is just like common pinochle, besides 20 cards are dealt to each individual and minimum bid is elevated to 500 factors.
In some variations, bids are made in increments of 10 or
more points until 600 is reached, then by 50 points.
This version often options “meld bidding”, a bid made to let a
partner know what’s in the bidder’s hand.
References:
none
Every participant receives a card from a shuffled deck, and the player with the highest-value card becomes the vendor. The vendor shuffles the cards and offers 12 cards in sets of three to every player (4 players) in a clockwise path. A 48-card pinochle deck consists of playing cards from Ace (high), 10, K, Q, J, and 9 (low) of every suit with two of each card. Sometimes, the game additionally uses double pinochle decks of 64 playing cards that embrace 8s and 7s.
As A Substitute of one player serving for the complete recreation, teams switch off. The first level is served by the group who was meant to serve the next recreation. If the serving player is positioned on the left facet of the court, their serve should land within the opposite (right side) service box on the other aspect of the online. If the serve misses the service box, it’s a fault, and the serving participant will get another likelihood. If the second serve can be a fault, it’s a “double fault,” and the serving team loses the point. Even although the court docket is bigger in doubles tennis, having four gamers on the courtroom implies that each player has a smaller area of the courtroom to cover. In Accordance to Sykut, that typically means doubles tennis requires much less running.
A complete round throughout a hand the place each player performs one card. The participant who wins the trick in accordance with the swimsuit and trump guidelines collects the performed playing cards and scores the appropriate points. Play moves clockwise, with each player having to play a card in the same swimsuit that was led each time attainable. If a participant can not follow the lead go properly with, he/she has to play a trump suited card. If a player can’t observe the lead swimsuit or play a trump suited card, he/she can play any card. Also, a participant should beat the excessive card performed if attainable, even when the card is your companions.
If you discard your Kings or Tens, you’ll get one level each for them. Assuming you win the bidding you then get to pick up the “kitty” and hopefully get the card you needed to complete your melds. On the opposite hand, generally you’re not so fortunate and the playing cards don’t allow you to one way or another. In both case, you’ll need to decide whether or not or not to hold the cards and which three cards to discard. Pinochle is much like Spades, solely within the context of trick-taking and bidding. Nonetheless, Spades doesn’t include melding cards, and the decks used are additionally completely different.
It continues to be played in police stations and firehouses, where teams of people usually have massive blocks of time available ready for their next name. Pinochle clubs entice gamers, younger and old alike, by internet hosting tournaments and teaching the sport to the subsequent generation of players. In Two-Handed Pinochle, gamers nonetheless attempt to win methods and score meld. Every participant gets dealt 12 playing cards and the remaining playing cards are placed into a stockpile. There’s another model of Two-Handed Pinochle where playing cards aren’t dealt in any respect, as a substitute players must draw from a face-down deck. Twelve playing cards are dealt to each player in sets of four playing cards. The high card of the remaining deck is flipped up and partially positioned beneath the deck.
Bounce bids can be dangerous, but they can be very efficient if used strategically. It can be played by more than four players at a time with two pinochle decks. The average scoring, hand sizes are doubled when Double Deck is used. When you wish to bid – There are general guidelines when you would/or would not bid. Typically, you rely (estimate) the meld points in your hand, add that to the potential trick factors you think you can pull and that’s the maximum bid you want to go to. There is a nice characteristic that the bid-winning group will get to move four playing cards from supporting member to the bid-winner, then the bid winner passes four back.
If you’re nonetheless new to Pinochle, you do not have to fret much. This game provides you a step-by-step information of the gameplay. It does not come with a handbook, nevertheless it has a few resources you could discuss with. For instance, there is a listing of card values for straightforward reference. And the game also prompts you each time it is your time to take a flip.
If they are unable to match their bid, the quantity of the bid is subtracted from their operating complete. Since there are completely different scoring strategies, ensure all gamers agree on the strategy earlier than dealing the playing cards. The playing cards may be handled in no matter fashion you want, as lengthy as the players all get 20 cards. The current version of the game does not permit bidding.
Irrespective of this feature, you have to at all times trump if you are void of a non-trump swimsuit to win the trick (standard pinochle rule). Pinochle is a captivating card recreation that combines technique, social interplay, and teamwork. One of the most essential features of the game is counting melds, which newbies tend to struggle getting the hold of. Melds are particular combos of cards that score points, and figuring out how to count them is crucial for mastering the game.
References:
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